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建筑资料翻译发展中国家面临的持续能力的挑战以及在此背景下对传统建筑的调整

发布时间:2012-10-17      阅读次数:1624

THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND THE ADAPTATION OF HERITAGE-INSPIRED ARCHITECTURE IN CONTEXT.

Wael A. Yousuf

Abstract

Despite the considerable contributions in the developing world relevant to the development of sustainable environments, the concept of sustainable architecture is yet not widely considered within most of the developing communities whose priority lies with the immediate resolutions of many existing problems. This paper aims to analyze the challenges and applicability of sustainable architecture concepts in developing countries in order to develop a strategy to create a more sustainable built environment. It represents a pragmatic approach to investigate the role that indigenous practices and heritage-inspired architectural solutions as key elements in this respect. The study suggests that utilization of scientific studies conducted on these traditional features and solutions in the early design stages and a computer-aided adaptation using the available software can introduce a much progressive and environmentally-aware architecture. As well, the study supposes that rational and pragmatic practices should be executed through an integrative approach to produce a synthesis of both pre-industrial and high tech-based design. This approach may confer a new dimension of hybridism to a distinct regional architecture. It might result in a much more ecologically-aware built environment as well as maintain a high level of self-consciousness.

Keywords

Sustainable architecture; challenges; heritage inspiration; computational adaptation.

Introduction

Many historical practices and indigenous architectural solutions have reflected a great sense of environmental and social sustainability, with respect to the technical advancement, economic and socio-political aspects. Nevertheless, in most of the post-modern revivalist movements, emphasis was placed on the stylistic approach and typologies of historical architecture, and analysis was focused on the cultural and stylistic authenticity. Little emphasis was placed upon functional, climatic and socio-spatial aspects. On the contrary, the functionally-oriented contributions have, to an extent, reflected a limited fundamentalist approach to the role which vernacular architecture can play, through a continuous process of straight revivalism. As illustrated in fig. 1, the limited conservative approach towards heritage contextualization and symbolic meanings of regression are the major challenges facing indigenous architecture.

The scope of this paper hence is limited to review the challenges and applicability of sustainable architecture in developing countries and the relevance of indigenous solutions in this respect. This would be accomplished through a major two-step process as expanded within the next few pages. The first step involves an overview of the architectural situation in the developing world, the generic perception of sustainability in context, and both economic and cultural challenges. However, the second step is dedicated to review examples of the potentially sustainable qualities in the indigenous features in relation to both climatic and cultural aspects. The last part of this paper suggests a conceptual framework for adaptation of these inherited features through conducting deliberate scientific researches and employment of the available computer-aided design tools.

This paper introduces three major hypotheses. First of all is that architecture should be conceptually influenced by its heritage along with the available technology. Combining both strategies would optimize the advantages of each. Secondly, passive environmental systems require considerations in the early design stages, initial decisions about orientation, form, and materiality, which cost nothing, yet lead to increased sustainability. The third hypothesis targets the human element. Such a functional approach will add a new evolutionary dimension to the stylistic aspects, which can change the ingrained perception of these features asimages from the past. The result might be an emphasis on cultural authenticity and increased self-consciousness. The assumed influence over the holistic approach of sustainability could be concluded through fig. 2.

Generic Architectural Situation in the Developing World and Sustainable Architecture in Response

The situation of contemporary architecture, in the majority of developing countries, exists between two extremes: an unconscious adoption of advanced international designs on one side and the stylistic revitalization of classical forms of architecture on the other. Most significant are those attempts which try to create a contemporary synthesis of the two. However, the architectural situation in developing countries is almost characterized by both decline in innovation and break down of traditions. This has led to a continuous process of copying, whether temporally from the past or geographically from the West regardless of both regional and cultural identities. Most of the recent projects are governed by this collective consciousness. The overall results hence were un-functional stylistic transplants and strange hybrids.

The boom in construction technology led to increased consumption of energy and resources that exceeded all expectations. Consequently, this necessitates investigation of alternative methods of design in order to achieve better management of natural resources and reduce the damage caused to the environment. Today, as at no other time, there is a critical need tore-evaluate the architectural situation and to maintain a sustainable development policy which demonstrates aspects of economical, ecological, and socio-political dimensions. However, the initial cost of the new technology associated with concepts of sustainability is comparatively high and the economic feasibility of adopting such method remains unclear to real estate investors in developing countries. A sustainable built environment, however, could be more derivative and related to the regional heritage and the social collective memory.

Perception of Sustainability and Challenges Within

The concept of architectural sustainability attracted some architects since it represents a new trend that addresses the desire for excellence. Many developers pursue to adopt principles of sustainable architecture mostly citing the experiences of industrialized countries. However, in spite of many contributions in this  field, the practices remain limited and theoretically un-integrated. The problem of the applicability of these ideas lies in how the architects perceive them, and the adoption of such method without adequate assessments of regional convenience. The methodology of adopting these concepts recalls what was followed with the international style that emerged with the ascendancy of modernism. Internationalism dominated the stylistic consciousness of most architects, and therefore, a breakdown of traditions and lack of identity were evident and a strong apprehension was imposed regarding regionalism and self-consciousness.

The techniques that were developed in Europe and the United States might not be commensurate with the natural conditions of different regions, and more importantly, they might contradict what was authentically understood as principles of sustainability. These methods and techniques require adaptation to achieve the desired convenience. Also they may require different environmental solutions due to the different climatic conditions. Such adaptation might lead, in terms of both style and materials, to significantly different practices, or even the opposite of what was originally adopted.

In terms of morphology, many local architects adopt the method as forms and expressions, not as content and principles. In many cases they follow a systematic approach of adopting nonregional imported architectural ideas without taking into account the direct relationship to their environment and its natural and cultural context. Hence, what began in the West as an alternative to save energy and an attempt to create a built environment that respects the ecological and environmental aspects, may be turned into a mere imported architectural style that ultimately lacks local peculiarities. However, challenges of sustainability, as shown in fig. 1, could be discussed mainly on economic and cultural levels.

Economic Challenges

The boom in urban and architectural development and increased investments in the real estate industry in many developing countries, such as in the Middle East, were both associated with high consumption of relatively cheap energy. However, the initial cost of the new technology associated with the progressive sustainable designs is comparativelyhigh and the economic feasibility of adoptingsuch methods remains unclear to real estateinvestors. This resulted in the investors ignoringthe possibility of alternative energy sources, aswell as a lack of serious consideration of the useand development of construction techniquesthat would significantly reduce the wasting ofenergy, unless through the imposed domesticregulations. In addition to the high initial cost,the projects in which these technologies areemployed usually encounter maintenanceand operating problems due to the lack ofsupporting industries and local expertise,resulting in a necessity to rely on foreign expertsand outsourcing, which contradicts the basicprinciples of sustainability.

Cultural Challenges

In addition to the previously mentionedfinancial constraints, sustainable design is notyet a culturally accepted concept within thedeveloping communities whose priority lieswith the immediate resolutions of the society’smany existing problems. The concepts ofsustainability then are not seriously adoptedas essential design requirements of manyowners and stakeholders. “Many buildings areoccupied by a succession of temporary ownersor renters, each unwilling to make long-termimprovements that would mostly benefit futureoccupants” (Brown, Southworth& Stovall, 2005p. 4). Furthermore, the architects themselvesare not encouraged to acquaint themselveswith such an approach due to the lack ofenvironmental orientation, regulations, andrelevant building codes.

发展中国家面临的持续能力的挑战以及在此背景下对传统建筑的调整

威尔 A 约瑟夫

概要

尽管发展中国家在宣传可持续发展环境方面做了诸多努力,但可持续发展的建筑理念还没有被广泛采用,大部分发展中国家依然将工作重心放在如何快速解决现有问题上。本文旨在分析发展中国家推广可持续发展建筑理念中可能遇到的挑战,从而提出可行策略帮助创造可持续发展的建筑环境。这其中实效的方法是研究发展中国家的实际做法,并将仿遗建筑作为解决问题的中心。报告建议,利用科学手段研究早期建筑设计特点,通过计算机辅助软件来对早期建筑进行改变从而设计出更现代更环保的建筑。同时,报告也指出了应通过综合方法,将工业化以前的设计理念和现代高科技结合起来,设计出合理可行的建筑方案。此方法可能会赋予区域独特建筑以杂糅的新理念。通过此方法,我们可以创造一个更环保的建筑环境,同时也能保持高度清醒的自我意识。

关键词

可持续发展建筑;挑战;遗产灵感;计算机辅助改编

引言

很多早期的当地建筑都反映出了当时的设计者对环境和社会可持续发展的关注度,同时,他们也考虑到了技术发展、经济和社会政治等要素。然而,在很多后现代的复旧运动中,关注的重点在早期建筑的形态设计理念和类型,分析的重点也放在文化和设计的原真性上。却很少有人关注早期建筑的功能性,气候和空间限制因素。而相反的是,在直接复古主义浪潮的过程中,注重功能性的建筑则在某种程度上反映出了设计者们用的是局限的基要主义方法看待本土建筑作用。如下所列:1. 本土建筑面临的主要挑战来自于对传统情景化和复古现象的象征意义局限而保守的看法。

本文将回顾在发展中国家可持续发展建筑理念的实施和遇到的挑战,以及相关的解决方法。解决办法主要是两步法,将在以下几页中详细阐述。第一部包括发展中国家建筑现状综述,在此背景下对可持续发展理念的普遍看法,以及经济和文化上面临的挑战。而第二步是要回顾实例,找出在气候和文化方面本土建筑中可能存在的可持续发展特点。本文的最后一个部分将阐述利用精细的科学研究和计算机辅助设计工具提出一个概念框架用于指导对传统设计特点的改进。

本文主要提出3中假设。第一种是现代建筑的设计理念必须融合早期建筑特点和现代科技手段。结合两种方案可以优势互补,相互提升。第二点,被动控制系统中应在设计初期就决定设计侧重点,外观和建筑材料等,这不会花费一分一毫,而且会提高稳固性。第三点是考虑人为因素。这种功能法带来了一种新的设计风格,从而能改变早期沿袭下的根深蒂固的旧设计理念。带来的改变就是建筑更有传统文化气息和个人特性。可能对可持续性带来的改变如图所示。 2.

发展中国家的一般建筑和可持续发展建筑现状

大部分的发展中国家现代建筑的发展现状介于两个极端之间:一端是完全采用现代国际设计,一端是推行复古主义,完全沿袭早期建筑模式。而实际上融合两种设计理念创造出的当代建筑才是有意义的。但目前发展中国家的建筑都在摧毁传统而且越来越缺乏新意。这就导致了他们一直在抄袭西方的建筑设计,不顾自身地域和文化特点,不顾西方设计新旧和建筑区域。最近大多的项目都遵从集体主义的理念。结果就是都是没有功能性和诡异的杂糅理念建筑。

建筑技术上兴起的发展风潮导致了精力和建筑材料上的巨大消耗,超过了所有的预期。结果就是,必须探索可行的替代方法,合理利用自然资源,减少对环境的危害。现在,我们面临前所未有的危机,必须要仔细研究建筑现状,保障可持续发展政策,综合考虑经济,生态和社会政治因素。然而,发展可持续性理念的新技术花费的资金较高,所以在发展中国家,房地产开发商是否会采用还未可知。可持续的建筑环境可能会设计到更多方面,例如地域传统和社会集体回忆。

对持续性的理解和所遇的挑战

建筑可持续性理念吸引了很多建筑学家的注意,因为这种理念代表着一种追求优秀的新发展方向。很多建筑学家跟随工业化国家,吸取他们的经验,采取可了持续发展建筑理念。然而,尽管在这方面有很多发展,但实际操作还很有限,理论也不完善。施行这些理念的主要问题在于建筑学家是如何理解这个理念,还有很多在操作的过程中没有对个体区域特点进行合理分析。而吸收了这些理念的方法论让人想起了国际风格风靡全球使得现代建筑取得了主流地位之后的情况。很多建筑家遵从国际主义的设计理念,所以,出现的建筑大多打破了传统却又缺乏独立性,出现了对地方主义和个人主义强烈恐惧感。

欧洲和美国发展出的建筑技术无法顺从不同地区的自然条件,更重要的是,他们违背了可持续发展的真实理念。这些建筑手法和技术必须进行改进,才能达到预期要求。当然,也要根据当地不同的气候条件施行不同的环保办法。根据不同建筑,在风格和建筑材料上的调整,可能使得最后的结果与最初的设计方案截然不同。

从形态学上考虑,很多当地的建筑家采用的是形式和表达理念,而不是内容和原则理念。大多时候,他们遵从系统方法,采用外国设计理念,毫不考虑建筑与环境关系以及当地自然和文化背景。所以结果就是,西方发展出的所谓节能环保的建筑理念变成了统一的建筑风格,使得建筑缺乏当地特色。可持续性方面所遇的挑战如图所示。1,主要在经济和文化层次讨论。

经济挑战

发展中国家,例如中东地区国家,城市和建筑蓬勃发展,房地产投资的不断增加,都导致相对便宜的资源巨大消耗。然而,发展可持续性理念的新技术花费的资金较高,所以在发展中国家,房地产开发商是否会采用还未可知。这会导致投资商忽略利用替代原料的可能性,除非当地政府出台相关政策,否则他们也不会认真考虑发展和利用新的建筑手段,即使新建筑方法可以节省很多原料。除了新技术可能花费较高以外,由于缺乏辅助工业和专家,新技术的操作过程中也会遇到很多问题。这就不得不不依赖外国专家和相关信息资源,而这又违背了可持续发展的基本原则。

文化挑战

出了上述的经济上的挑战,可持续发展的建筑理念还没有被广泛采用,大部分发展中国家依然将工作重心放在如何快速解决现有问题上。很多业主和利益相关者并没有认真考虑将可持续性发展理念作为设计要求的重点。”很多房子都是被临时租住的,临时住户们都不愿意做一些永久性的改善,因为他们认为这些改善最大的收益者可能是以后的住户。“(布朗,索斯沃斯和斯托瓦,2005刊)4). 另外,因为缺乏相关环境保护法规和建筑法规,建筑家们自己也不愿学习这种方法。

选用遗产灵感作为关键元素

新兴可持续架构模型中使用的技术有其功用价值和道德价值,进而在整个建筑形态中体现出来。这些价值体现了一种诚实的和功能上的功利主义,而不是追求审美表现或从外部技术和功能因素关注其建筑风格。但是,可持续元素和区域传统以及社会的集体记忆有着更多的联系。以年代久远的伊斯兰建筑为例,可以在其中找到许多这类特征,如集风口、建筑的阴影部分、自然采光的控制、保温隔热和方法的使用、具有地方特色的建筑材料和用于散热的自然技术。

例如,一个出色的门窗布局,可以满足居住人隐私要求,同时没有妨碍采光,我们介绍过mashrabiya系统(见图2)。而解决的办法就是简单地通过一个循序渐进穿孔,用来控制气流和视觉接触,另外还布置有一块从上面悬挂出来屋檐遮阴。此外,根据物理的基本规则,当热空气上升时,冷气流下降。热能从温暖的物质辐射到冷却物质上,妥善的解决方式是通过控制集风口和屋檐突处的交叉通风和气流实现(见图3)。

以一个内部庭院集中布局为例,可显著提高建筑物的潜在功率。它有助于温和极端气候带来的不便,避免阳光直射,提供对流通风和气流。此外,它提供了隐私和舒适的户外空间享受温和的小气候(见图4)。“许多文学作品中的庭院建筑形式能够回应炎热干燥气候环境带来的变化,尽管有很多明显的逻辑,大部分这类说法都比较模糊,并且主要来源于传闻、定性观察和常识。“(Ratti,Raydan & Steamer,2003, 第54页)。例如,庭院建筑的高度和地面之间的相互关系要准确量化。因此,目前可用的科学技术、预算、观察以及远远不够了。通过实验科研科学量化意义重大,可以将该问题进一步阐释清楚。

随着地理及地形建筑工地的考虑,许多本土和被动的解决方案可能有助于降低建筑成本。例如,连续包块可以提供阴影区,从而降低了暴露在太阳的地区,除了使用气流形式,集风口和喷泉水也可以作为自然冷却的元素。可以选用CMU预制保温作为替换方式,在大多数情况下,建筑材料都在白天吸收热量,晚上将吸收的热量释放,而不穿透墙壁传到室内。此外,使用双层墙壁和天花板可使空气自由流动,将太阳光造成的影响降到最低。为了减少太阳造成的影响,门窗布局的数量和面积可能会降到最低,除了使用水平和垂直的百叶窗和凸窗,也可以在室内和室外添加适当的种植面积。

最近在发展中国家的可持续建筑的研究主要致力于讨论两类问题:进步与保守二种方法。这个领域的大多数贡献是通过保守工作完成的,在某种程度上反映了一个有限的原教旨主义的方法来确定本地建筑所扮演的角色。这导致对传统实践的评估有些夸大,这种直接的复古主义的做法对建筑类型、建筑规模和客户都造成某种程度的限制。原始建筑实践的可持续性,可以说完全以本土主义为基础的,完全是一种后退的行为。大部分的可持续发展的措施都采用传统和本土小型建筑解决方案,主要是小型建筑由一个或两个层构成,完全选用直接的复旧方法。这种方法对顾客和建筑类型都造成限制。但从实用角度来说,大部分住宅、商业、教育和医疗设施的建筑类型需要更大的尺度,平均为四层或五层建筑。此外,多层建筑更实际的考虑客户的文化、混合用地类型和土地价格等方面的因素。

本土主义感知
“乡土建筑应该遗弃,居住这些建筑相当不舒适。“(Karaosman,1996,第9页)。在这里,问题是对重新评价对本土主义的坚持。这些问题主要包括乡土建筑的本质,被动环境反应和人类行为的关系。“乡土建筑和人类行为之间的关系是什么?理解建筑的基本性质是否要抛开建筑环境中关于被动环境反应的分析?“(Turan,1988,第135页)。然而, 以Fathy哈桑为例,Fathy是埃及在这个领域的先锋人物,取得的成绩无疑是显著的。他试图引进一个理性的并且为地区接受的环境体系结构,同时能够感知对经济环境和区域传统。以最低的成本和最可利用材料、泥砖、使用继承传统特色创建出来的环保建筑(见图5)。“乡土建筑的经济性依赖于原材料和能源。它的优点是用当地的材料与技术,而且是人类和某个时代的长期试验过程。“(Gulmez,2007第三页)。不过,他的可持续发展观点并没有得到文化上得认可,其原因是他的观点带有贫困的象征意义,同时缺乏官方的支持和推广。

重新考虑地域性建筑的基本原则非常有必要。地域主义总是关心维护建筑物可持续发展的功能性,对环境的反应,以此来表达一个明显的区域性身份。地域性建筑的基本原理是在外来的风格和影响下保持高度的自我意识。“通过一般定义我们可以说,相对于更普遍和更抽象的概念,地域性建筑维护了其个体建筑物和地方建筑的特点。“(Frampton,2002,第81页)。肯尼斯Yeang写道,如果讨论地方主义者设计意图:“地方主义者的建筑概念是以一种不言自明的方式回应当地的条件。它应该涉及到更深的感情和有形的现实居住地,而不是有关国际建筑的影响和主要趋势。“(Yeang,1997,第146页)。

发展中国家在这一领域最大的贡献在仅局限于个体建筑的研究和实践,无论是采用单一途径,或者是采用进步或保守方式。毫无疑问,应该采用理性、务实的做法,通过一个综合方案将上述两种方法合成在一起。但是,高科技设计受到各种经济方面的制约,包括政府补贴等条件的制约。然而,在过去几十年计算设计繁荣的时期,我们可以选择“改善,现代化和传统建筑技术,建筑设计和定居模式”这种方式(Plessis 1999,第6页)。因此,本土实践和受传统文化启发的解决方案能有意识地介入到当代建筑设计中。“现在我们面临让一种新的建筑理念继续成长的困难,但我们必须意识到。在过去,这种在过去存在的建筑理念,必须有意识地创造出来。”(Doxiadis,1963,第136页)。这个过程可以在早期设计阶段,在短时间内通过运用适用的计算实验工具实现,如各种能源仿真程序和气流预测方法。

有意识的适应本土特征
“全球需求更多的可持续发展,已导致越来越多的新技术和设计策略,旨在改善建筑物各项性能方面的考虑,如能源、舒适、成本、美学、环境影响等。”(Holst,2003,第507页)。其目的是建立一个方法论工作框架来创建一个先进理念的带有传统文化色彩的可持续发展建筑。本文因此建议选用科学的进化程序,目的选编建筑物的历史特点,这些历史特点要求具有可持续潜力,可以精确且连续通过两个步骤流程实施。流程的主要目的是如何运用现有的技术和设计工具,在早期设计阶段对这些特征进行甄别,如能源模拟程序和气流预测方法。

流程的第一个步骤可以对包括有各种上述特征的历史建筑累计性气候设计经验进行广泛的区域性研究。在该步骤中,可以讨论各个建筑范例反映的高水平的气候和区域意识特征。如图6所示,这项研究应该关心可持续发展的基本原则与该案例有关历史和社会环境范围,可以选用如下方式:整体建筑分析(功能、定位和材料);计划分析、建筑物正面、建筑围护结构和气候控制、送风模式的研究和通风照明方法。

“在过去的五十年里,已经有数以百计的建筑物能源计划得到发展,提高和使用”(Crawley,Hand, Kummert& Griffith, 2005, 2005,第231页)。通过序列计算实验可以量化建筑物许多方面的潜在能力,因此可以更实际的准确提出评估特点的优点。这样一个科学的流程,可以提出建筑物更多的精确评估,如耐用性、阻燃、节能和保温。从而提高建筑设计的解决方案。最后可以思考下列事项:建筑维护结构的优化,建筑定位,建筑材料和模式,最大化的采光,被动冷却和空气对流。

结论
本地方案是一项可持续设计相关资源的解决方案,具有极大的经济性和环保要求。然而,这些复古主义思想遭遇到一些挑战,基本上无非是贫穷的象征意义、倒退思想的顾虑、自卑情结反对新兴和进口设计方法、以及对待建筑遗产有限的保守方法。今天我们有选择的把这些特性进行改善,找出潜在能力,在早期设计阶段通过利用现有计算设计工具,对这些特征进行梳理。

可持续发展,根据布伦特兰委员会的定义;跨越三个互动领域:经济、环保、文化的可持续发展。可以预期,上述建议的方法会影响到许多领域。在环境方面,能源性能有显著改善,提高建筑物中使用碳元素的比例。在经济方面,建筑物的运行成本将会有显著提高,主要是因为降低了建筑物的能耗。同时,相对低成本的软件、能源仿真程序,训练有素的专业知识也可以降低成本。对社会和文化持续性的影响可能更加明显。这样一个功能性德方式将会在设计风格方面,增加一个新的进化维度,可以改变过去这些特征给人们根深蒂固的感知形象。其结果可强调文化的真实性和提高自我意识和对地域文化的亲近。一个先进的带有传统文化色彩的建筑物,可以是一个结合可用的技术和现代的全球建筑风格趋势,带有独特的地域文化和区域行要求,从而创建一个具有建筑物功用特征,同时有着自我沉思型特征的建筑物。

译路通武汉翻译公司

2012.10.17

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